Perhaps the most direct confrontation between the Ottoman and European visions of global exploration came in the Indian Ocean. The Portuguese, having rounded the Cape of Good Hope, sought to dominate spice routes and establish forts along the Indian coast and East Africa. Ottoman-Portuguese naval

One of the most fascinating aspects of the Ottoman engagement with global exploration lies in their cartographic tradition, especially the work of Piri Reis, a naval admiral and mapmaker. Piri Reis’s 1513 world map — created just 21 years after Columbus’s first voyage — co

When discussing the Age of Discovery, images of Spanish galleons, Portuguese caravels, and maps littered with compass roses often come to mind. Names like Vasco da Gama, Christopher Columbus, and Ferdinand Magellan dominate this Eurocentric narrative of seafaring expansion, empire-building, and glob

So, does Richard Rich deserve his reputation? He is often cast as a Machiavellian figure, betraying mentors, colleagues, and causes alike. He enriched himself from the suffering of others and switched religious allegiances seemingly without remorse. His perjury (or at the very least, dubious test